John Humphrey Noyes, American religious leader, founded the Oneida Community (b. 1811)
John Humphrey Noyes (September 3, 1811 – April 13, 1886) stands as a singularly influential and often controversial figure in 19th-century American religious and social history. Born in Brattleboro, Vermont, he was far more than just a preacher; he developed into a radical religious philosopher and a pioneering utopian socialist whose visionary, and sometimes startling, ideas profoundly challenged the social and theological norms of his era. His legacy is indelibly tied to the founding and leadership of several experimental communities, most notably the famed Oneida Community, and he is widely credited with coining the now historically recognized term "complex marriage".
The Radical Path of a Reformer
Noyes's intellectual and spiritual journey was marked by an intense engagement with Protestant theology, particularly during the fervent atmosphere of the Second Great Awakening. He initially studied law at Dartmouth College and then theology at Andover and Yale, but his unique interpretations of scripture quickly diverged from mainstream orthodoxy. He embraced a doctrine he termed "perfectionism", believing that true salvation allowed individuals to achieve a state of sinless perfection on Earth, a radical departure from the prevailing Calvinist emphasis on human depravity. This theological conviction fueled his belief that a perfected society was not only possible but divinely ordained.
Founding Principles: Complex Marriage and Communalism
Driven by his perfectionist ideals, Noyes sought to establish a society free from sin, selfishness, and traditional social constraints. Central to this vision was the concept he famously named "complex marriage". This was not a casual arrangement but a deeply considered communal marital system where all adult members of the community were considered spiritually and physically married to one another, challenging the foundations of conventional monogamy and private property within relationships. Noyes believed this system would eliminate jealousy, foster universal love, and elevate the community above individualistic desires, creating a truly harmonious and cooperative environment. Alongside this, he advocated for a comprehensive form of communal living, where property, labor, and child-rearing were shared responsibilities.
The Utopian Experiments: Putney, Oneida, and Wallingford
Noyes put his radical theories into practice by founding a series of experimental communities:
- Putney Community (1844-1847): His initial experiment in Putney, Vermont, was relatively short-lived. The community's open practice of complex marriage and other unconventional customs led to significant opposition and legal challenges from local residents, forcing Noyes and his followers to seek a new home.
- Oneida Community (1848-1881): This was by far Noyes's most successful and enduring venture, established in Oneida, New York. The Oneida Community flourished for over three decades, growing into an economically robust enterprise primarily known for its innovative manufacturing, especially its high-quality silverware. Within its structured environment, complex marriage was practiced, alongside a system of "mutual criticism" for behavioral guidance, and later, "Stirpiculture," a eugenics-inspired program of controlled procreation aimed at improving the community's human stock. The community was a testament to Noyes's organizational prowess and the dedication of its members.
- Wallingford Community (1851-1879): Located in Connecticut, the Wallingford Community served as a satellite or branch of the larger Oneida Community. It shared the same principles of communal living, complex marriage, and economic cooperation, providing an extension for the Oneida model.
Legacy and Dissolution
While Noyes’s communities demonstrated remarkable resilience and economic success for a time, external pressures, evolving societal attitudes, and internal disagreements eventually led to their transformation. The Oneida Community, facing increasing scrutiny and internal challenges regarding complex marriage, voluntarily dissolved its communal practices in 1881. It then transitioned into a highly successful joint-stock company, Oneida Community Limited, which continued the manufacturing businesses and exists to this day, primarily known for its cutlery. John Humphrey Noyes himself, having moved to Canada during the final years of the community's communal phase, passed away in 1886. His life and work offer a compelling case study in 19th-century American communalism, highlighting the audacious attempts to redefine religion, family structure, and economic organization in pursuit of a utopian ideal.
Frequently Asked Questions About John Humphrey Noyes
- What was John Humphrey Noyes best known for?
- He is primarily known for being an American preacher, radical religious philosopher, and utopian socialist who founded the influential Oneida Community and coined the term "complex marriage."
- What was "complex marriage" as proposed by Noyes?
- Complex marriage was a communal marital system within Noyes's communities where all adult members were considered married to one another. Its purpose was to eliminate jealousy, foster universal love, and promote a higher form of communal harmony over individual possessiveness.
- Which community founded by Noyes was the most successful?
- The Oneida Community, established in Oneida, New York, was his most successful and enduring venture, thriving for over 30 years as an economically prosperous enterprise.
- What were John Humphrey Noyes's core religious beliefs?
- Noyes was a proponent of Christian Perfectionism, believing that individuals could achieve a state of sinless perfection on Earth. This theological foundation heavily influenced his social experiments in communal living and radical marital practices.
- When did the Oneida Community transition away from its communal practices?
- The Oneida Community formally dissolved its communal practices, including complex marriage, in 1881, transforming into a successful joint-stock company known as Oneida Community Limited.